Race or Religion?

In the excerpt from "The Racialization of Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism in the United States," Khyati Y. Joshi discusses the identity issues related to religion and race. Joshi focuses on the religious and racial identification issues of Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism. The boundaries between race and religion are often blurred and many often make false assumptions of one's religion based off of his/her race. Joshi delves into this discussion by tracing back to the beginning of this identity crisis with colonial America where the white race became associated with Christianity. From this point, the association of race with religion became widespread. Religious identity became a biological trait that could not be changed in the eyes of white Americans. For example, being Jewish was no longer just a religion, but also a race. The boundary between racial and religious identity has been eliminated and they are no longer different aspects. If one is Indian, they are often automatically assumed to be Hindu, while those of middle eastern descent are often assumed to Sikhi or Islamic. Joshi exemplifies how the racialization of Hinduism, Islam and Sikhism renders those faiths theologically, socially, and morally illegitimate in the popular eye. 

1. "When religion is racialized, a particular set of phenotypical features, understood in a specific social and historical context, comes to be associated with a given religion and/or with other social traits. The racialization of religion results in or exacerbates the ethnoreligious oppression of the minority group" (Yoshi). How do you think the boundaries between race and religion can be more defined? What other identity factors are often used to form assumptions of people? What do you think constitutes one's identity?

2. Joshi emphasizes the idea of white supremacy as the cause of the blurring of the boundaries between race and religion. What are other examples of white supremacy conflicts in history and how do they involve racialization?

Buddhism in America

My mother, Noel, does not consider herself to be a religious person, yet some of her beliefs stem from the religion of Buddhism. She does not truly consider herself to be a buddhist, therefore she cannot be categorized under any specific branch of Buddhism. The main branches of Buddhism are Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism is the more orthodox form of Buddhism seen in Sri Lanka, Cambodia, Laos, Burma and Thailand, while Mahayana is the more modernized form of Buddhism and is more prominently seen in China and Japan. Since my mom is from Hong Kong, which is now a part of China, I suppose her beliefs can be drawn from Mahayana Buddhism.

The religion of Buddhism arose in America during the 19th-century starting with the Chinese immigrants. "During the second half of the nineteenth century, Chinese immigrants settled in Hawaii and California. These immigrants brought a number of Mahayana Buddhist practices with them and built numerous temples." (1)  This was just the beginning of the rise of Buddhist culture in America. Americans began adapting to many of the branches of Mahayana Buddhism. One of these branches is called Zen Buddhism derived from Japan. "A typical Buddhist teaching on the Four Noble Truths is that they are like a canoe used to reach a distant shore; they are a great way to achieve enlightenment, but once you reach the shore, you have to get out of the boat. The imported Zen Buddhism of America is much like this parable: many of the canoes employed in traditional Japanese Buddhism are cast away as hindrances to reaching enlight- enment." (2) A typical cultus of Zen Buddhism includes meditation in the lotus position, and Americans have changed this practice by the allowance of meditating in chairs rather than on the ground. Also, the introduction of meditation into the American society has led to scientific breakthroughs in psychology, psychiatry and psychotherapy as means of understanding behavior and mental illnesses. (3) Although meditation began as a method in Zen Buddhism to achieve Enlightenment, it has evolved in America to other forms such as yoga. "Over time, however, the less technical forms of meditation have become popular in the United States – a glimpse of which can be seen in the athletic practice of yoga and its focus on counting one's measured breaths." (4) Americans have also changed the end goal of enlightenment of Zen Buddhism. "Instead of looking for this outdated reli- gious notion, these Buddhists are searching for ways to be attentive and mindful in everyday life; Buddhism has become basically, a set of ethics." (5) The traditional Chinese Buddhism has become limited in America and has somewhat developed into a communalistic religion with immigrants having a tendency to isolate themselves in their own communities. "The focus of Chinese Buddhism is the transfer of good deeds so that all people might attain enlightenment in Amithabha’s Pure Land. Master Hsin Yun, the founder of Fo Kuang Buddhism, considers the goal not to reach the Pure Land, but rather to transform this world into a Pure Land." (6) Another form of Buddhism that has developed in America is called "Liberation Buddhism." "Some call this “Liberation Buddhism” as opposed to “Extinction Buddhism” since it seeks to free the world from greed and hatred instead of allowing that greed and hatred to destroy the world." (7) This is a very modernized form of Buddhism, also called "Engaged Buddhism," that openly welcomes Western Christian ideals. "This tradition has moved toward agnosticism regarding beliefs including reincarnation and karma while upholding instead that liberation is not to be found in distant epochs of time but in this world, leading to social activism." (8)  The introduction of Buddhism to America has expanded drastically throughout the years. The diversity in America has led to the creation of multiple new Buddhist branches and sects promoting the expansion of ideas within the Buddhist religion. 

Photo source: http://www.downtowndharma.com/index.php/2011/04/24/meditation-hot-spots/

The aspect of Buddhism in Noel's life is not the typical one. She does not fall under a single sect of Mahayana Buddhism, but rather she entails beliefs and practices from multiple sects. As in Zen Buddhism, Noel is not necessarily seeking Enlightenment, but instead, she seeks ways too be attentive and mindful in everyday life, making Buddhism her set of ethics. The practice of meditation is also a major part of Noel's life in one form or another. She practices yoga almost everyday to achieve inner peace, in addition to some exercise. From Chinese Buddhism, Noel has taken the practice of doing good deeds and being a good person. From Liberal or Engaged Buddhism, Noel has developed the beliefs of karma, reincarnation, and freedom from hate. Noel's views are most similar to Liberal/Engaged Buddhism because she is very liberal in her Buddhist beliefs. These beliefs and practices are maintained by Noel on a daily basis. 

1. “Buddhism in the West,” Buddhist Studies, August 24, 2013, accessed August 24, 2013,http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/to-west.htm.
2. TJ McDonald, “Ameriyana: The Western Vehicle of the Buddha Dharma”, Intermountain West Journal of Religious Studies 2, no. 1 (2010): 48, accessed August 24, 2013,http://digitalcommons.usu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1007&context=imwjournal.
3. McDonald, 53
4. Kelsey Geiser, “Stanford Scholar Tracks Meditation's Migration from Ancient Buddhist Monasteries to Your Local Yoga Class,” Stanford News, May 1, 2012, accessed August 24, 2013,http://news.stanford.edu/news/2012/may/meditation-buddhist-study-050112.html.
5. McDonald, 49
6. McDonald, 50
7. McDonald, 51
8. McDonald, 51

Personal Religious History

"Religion is a system of symbols (creed, code, cultus) by means of which people (community) locate themselves in the world with reference to both ordinary and extraordinary powers, meanings, and values." -Catherine L. Albanese

 Growing up in Hong Kong, Noel, was raised as a Buddhist by her parents. They were not strict buddhists, but instead took in a few aspects in which they believed was necessary to live a meaningful life and called themselves Buddhist. The way in which her family practiced buddhism involved the adoption of certain beliefs from the buddhist religion such as karma and reincarnation that they felt were necessary to them. 

"Karma is the law of moral causation. The theory of Karma is a fundamental doctrine in Buddhism. This belief was prevalent in India before the advent of the Buddha. Nevertheless, it was the Buddha who explained and formulated this doctrine in the complete form in which we have it today" (Sayadaw). Karma is the idea of "what comes around goes around." It is a cause and effect cycle that promotes the doing of good deeds and being good to others, and good things will happen in return. Noel grew up with this ideal strongly instilled in her, and still believes exemplifies it today. She believes in always being kind to others, no matter how unpleasant another is acting towards her. She possesses a strong belief in always doing the right thing. The belief in karma is not an ideal that has diminished in Noel's life, but has only grown stronger in order to live by a creed of moral righteousness. "Karma is a Sanskrit word from the root "Kri" to do or to make and simply means "action." It operates in the universe as the continuous chain reaction of cause and effect. It is not only confined to causation in the physical sense but also it has moral implications. "A good cause, a good effect; a bad cause a bad effect" is a common saying. In this sense karma is a moral law" (Tsuji). 

Another belief, Noel has adopted from the Buddhist religion is the idea of reincarnation or rebirth. "Buddhists hold that the retributive process of karma can span more than one lifetime. Rebirth has always been an important tenet in Buddhism; and it is often referred to as walking the wheel of life (Samsara). It is the process of being born over and over again in different times and different situations, possibly for many thousand times" (Karma and Rebirth). It is believed that if one exemplifies good karma, they will be re-born into a good life, and those who portray bad karma will either be re-born into a bad life or not be re-born at all. Noel believes that by being a morally righteous person and maintaining good karma in her life, she will be re-born into another life after this one. 

As far as Buddhist practices go, Noel and her family did not consistently follow the Buddhist practices. In Hong Kong, when she was growing up, her parents would take their family to the Buddhist temple every once in a while to pray, and light incense. "Incense symbolises the fragrance of pure moral conduct and reminds us to cultivate good conduct" (Incense Mediation). Once Noel had moved to American with her family around the time she was beginning middle school, the attendance of Buddhist temples had ceased. This was a result of moving to Tucson, AZ which was a new environment and  country in which they did not have a Buddhist temple at the time. To this day, Noel still does not attend Buddhist temples.

Incense Burning at a Buddhist Temple

Image from: http://easywebsite.net/Vietnam.html

Nowadays, Noel still upholds the strong belief in karma and rebirth and has instilled the idea of karma in her children, but allows her children the freedom of having their own beliefs and following their own religious ideals and practices. My family is not very religious and is not a part of any one specific religion but does posses ideals paralleling those in various religions.

Sources:

"Incense Meditation." Buddhist Studies. http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhism/meditate/incense.htm (accessed August 9, 2013).

"Karma and Rebirth." The Big View. http://www.thebigview.com/buddhism/karma.html (accessed August 9, 2013).

Sayadaw, Ven. Mahasi. "The Theory of Karma." Buddhist Studies. http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/karma.htm (accessed August 9, 2013).

Tsuji, Takashi. "On Reincarnation." Buddhist Studies. http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/reincarnation.htm (accessed August 9, 2013).